一、修辞在英语中的地位
语法、词汇、习语和修辞都是构成英语的要素。基础英语语法作为句式规则是要牢牢记住和熟练使用的。但是，追根溯源，英语是结构语言，也是分析性语言。英语的单词按照习惯方式连成习语，学生应当牢记这些习语，而不要用语法去套用。有些语言现象可能与语法规则不完全相符，然而，它们是地道的英语。
今天，人们讲话的依据是习语，不是规则，因为规则已被众多的著名作家打破了。莎士比亚开创了双重比较的先例，笛福和阿狄生打破了使用分词的常规。真谛在于英语语法是肯通融的，它的唯一宗旨是易懂。民主是英语的特性，我们在不滥用的前提下有权自由运用英语。
事实上，很多习语只不过是失去活力的修辞格。例如，“山脚下”、“河口”之类的习语在英语中时时出现，几乎人人皆知，但是人们很少想到它们是修辞格。然而，它们的确是使用了修辞格。最初讲到“山脚下”、“河口”的人是有意识地采用了隐喻格。只是天长日久，反复使用，使它们的喻义消退，不再具有形象的特色，隐喻义演变成了词条下收录的词义了。迄今为止的英语教学对修辞重视得不够。人们视修辞或为阳春白雪，或为咬文嚼字。其实大学英语中有关修辞格的教学是很重要的。
英语修辞的重要性不仅体现于写作，还体现在阅读和理解之中。学生阅读原文时，常常会遇到既无生词，又无语法难点，却不理解文意的情况。他们查遍词典，甚至查阅了习语辞典也无济于事。为什么呢？多半是修辞问题。事实上，学英语而不懂修辞是很难读懂原著的。因此，在英语教学中要加强修辞的教学。
Rhetorical device： 修辞方式
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Part I Figure of speech 比喻
1． 明喻 (Simile)
明喻就是用like, as, as...as, as if(though) 或用其他词语指出两个不同事物的相似之处
Use a book as a bee does flowers. 读书如蜜蜂采蜜。
Wit without learning is like a tree without fruit. 没有学识的机智犹如没有果实的树。
The man can't be trusted. He is as slippery as an eel. 那个人不可信赖。他像鳗鱼一样狡猾。
He jumped as if he had been stung.他像被蜇了似的跳了起来。
2． 暗喻 ( Metaphor)
暗喻和明喻一样也是在两个不同类对象之间进行比较。但暗喻不用比喻词as或like等，而是直接把本体说成喻体。如：
Time is money. 时间就是金钱。
Experience is the father of wisdom and memory the mother. 经验是智慧之父，记忆是智慧之母。
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He has a heart of stone. 他有一颗铁石心肠。
3． 换喻/借喻 ( Metonymy)
换喻不像明喻、暗喻等比喻形式那样利用不同类对象的相似或类同点构成比较，而是利用对象之间的某种联系来唤起他人的联想，从而避免直说。比如用the bottle来代替wine 或者alcohol， 用the bar 来代替the legal profession，用 crown代替 king等。pentagon如：
His purse would not allow him that luxury. 他的经济条件不允许他享受那种奢华。
The mother did her best to take care of the cradle. 母亲尽最大努力照看孩子。
He succeeded to the crown in 1848. 他在1848年继承了王位。
借喻中也含有本体和喻体，两者之间是一种借代关系。如：
She was a girl who excited the emotions, but I was not the one to let my heart rule my head. 她十个让人动情的姑娘，而我则不是让感情支配理智的人。
借喻中的本体和喻体之间的关系可以通过下列几种方式进行表达：
1．以典型的人体组织、器官或部位代人的抽象行为或能力；
2．以作家名借代作品或观念；
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3．以容器借代被盛的东西；以局部地名代整体名，或以产地代产品名；
4．以资料或工具代替事物的名称；
5．以商标代产品；以特征指人或物
Metonymy can be derived from various sources:
a. Names of persons
Uncle Sam: the USA
b. Animals
the bear: the Soviet Union
the dragon : the Chinese (a fight between the bear and the dragon)
c. Parts of the body
heart: feelings and emotions
head, brain: wisdom, intelligence, reason
She was a girl who excited the emotions, but I was not one to let my heart rule my head.
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grey hair: old age
d. Profession:
the press: newspapers, reporters etc.
He met the press yesterday evening at the Grand Hotel.
the bar: the legal profession
e. location of government, business etc.
Downing Street: the British Government
the Capitol Hill: US Congress
Wall Street: US financial circles
Hollywood: American filmmaking industry
区别：借喻（代）不同于隐喻，
1） 借喻是指同类事物之间的比拟，而隐喻则是不同事物之间的比拟；
2） 借喻不是同类的概念，(similarity),而是接近的概念，两个概念关系密切，唇齿相依。
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如：White House指美国总统府；代替美国政府或者总统，
the Pentagon即美国国防部.
4． 提喻 (Synecdoche)
提喻是指用部分代表整体，或用整体代表部分的修辞方法,或以特殊代表一般或者用一般代表特殊。如：
Two heads are better than one. 三个臭皮匠，顶个诸葛亮。
Great minds think alike. 英雄所见略同。
这里head, mind均是以人体的某部分来代表\"人\"这一整体。
He earns his bread by writing. 他靠写作挣钱谋生。
The farms were short of hands during the harvest season. 在收获季节里农场缺乏劳动力。
Australia beat Canada at cricket. 澳大利亚队在板球比赛中击败了加拿大队。
He is the Newton of this century. 他是这个世纪的牛顿。
A. Use the part to represent the whole
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1)Twenty years later when he came back to his home town, he saw many new faces. (strangers) 2) He has a fleet of fifty sails. (ships)
B. Use the whole to represent the part
1) The score is 2 to 1 in favor of China. (Chinese team)
C. Use concrete things to represent abstract things or vice versa
1) All the wit and learning were assembled here. (the wit—the clever and wise people; learning—learned people)
Part II 其他重要的修辞方式：
5． 拟人 ( Personification)
拟人是把无生命的东西或抽象的概念赋予人的个性的修辞方法。如：
Facts speak louder than words. 事实胜于雄辩。
Fields have eyes, and woods have ears. 隔墙有耳。
Riches serve a wise man, but command a fool. 财富是智者的奴隶，愚者的主人。
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The flowers nodded to her while she passed. 当她经过的时候花儿向她点头致意。
6. 夸张 ( Hyperbole)
运用丰富的想象，在数量、形状或程度上加以渲染以增强表达效果，这就是夸张。如：
A thousand years cannot repair a moment's loss of honor. 一失足成千古恨。
Money makes the mare go. 有钱能使鬼推磨。
The world is but a little place, after all. 海内存知己，天涯若比邻。
7. 头韵 (Alliteration)
英语是一种韵律丰富的语言。两个或更多的词以相同的辅音字母开始，便构成头韵。如：
safe and sound
Look before you leap. 三思而后行。
Practice makes perfect. 熟能生巧。
Time and tide wait for no man. 岁月不等人。
Long and loudly little Lily laughed. 小莉莉长时间地、大声地笑着。
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The windows waved violently in the wind. 窗户在风中剧烈地摇动。
9. 委婉 (euphemism)
用温和的、间接的词语代替生硬的、粗俗的词语，以免直接说出不愉快的事实冒犯别人或者造成令人窘迫、沮丧的局面。例如：
用to fall asleep; to cease thinking; to pass away; to go to heaven; to leave us 代替 to die
用senior citizens代替old people
用 a slow learner或者an under achiever在学习方面未发挥潜力的学生代替a stupid pupil
用weight watcher代替 fat people
用mental hospital 代替 madhouse或者 asylum
用emotionally disturbed代替mad
用washroom, men's / women's room代替 lavatory厕所
用low income brackets; underprivileged; disadvantaged 代替 poor people
10. parallelism.排比
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把三个或以上意义相关或相近、结构相同或相似、语气相同的词组或句子并排在一起，就叫做排比。
Thinking logically, speaking eloquently and writing explicitly are important elements of good communication.
From my observation, many people today spend their time receiving more and more education, working more and more hours, and making more and more money.
11. 重复 ( Repetition)
重复是指某词或词组的重复使用。如：
Little things amuse little minds. 小人无大志。
Measure for measure. 以牙还牙。
Who chatters to you, will chatter of you. 来向你搬弄是非者, 也必会向别人搬弄你的是非。
12. Antithesis: (对照）它是把意义相反或相对的语言单位排列在平行、对称的结构里,以求取一种匀称的形式美和强烈的对照感。Antithesis 有两个特点:一是语义上的对照性,二是结构上的对称性。因此, 该辞格可看作是Parallelism(平行) 与Contrast (对照) 的结合,故译作“平行对照”。
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Knowledge makes humble , ignorance makes proud.
有知使人谦卑,无知使人骄矜。
A pessimist is one who makes difficulties of his opportunities ; an optimist is one who makes opportunities of his difficulties.
悲观的人把机会变成困难;乐观的人将困难化为机会。
13. 反语 (irony)/ Sarcasm: (讽刺） 是指用含蓄的褒义词语来表达反面意思。从而达到使本义更加幽默，更加讽刺的效果。
“What a fine day for an outing!”
(计划一次出游却被大雨搅黄了，于是出现了上句话，达到讽刺的效果，更能反映当时心情的沮丧和无奈)
On her birthday, the old lady merely received a check from her dear daughter, nothing more, what a lovely present! (选自大学英语精读1，unit 3 The present)
14. 双关 ( Pun)
双关是巧妙地利用同音异义或同形异义等现象使词或句子具有两种不同的含义，显得含蓄、幽默而新奇。如：
Measure yourself by your own foot. 用自己的脚来量自己。/ 用自己的标准来衡量
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自己。
这里foot有两层含义：（1）脚；（2）英尺。构成语义双关。
Rue and thyme grow both in one garden. 芸香和麝香长在同一个园子里。/ 悔恨与日俱增。
rue有两层含义：（1）芸香；（2）悔恨。构成语义双关。thyme与time发音相同，构成语音双关。
A cannonball took off his legs, so he laid down his arms. (arms可指手臂或者武器)
一发炮弹打断了他的腿，所以他缴械投降了。
15. Assonance谐音: it refers to the repetition of similar vowel sounds, usu. close together, to achieve a particular effect of euphony.
hustle and bustle
Haste makes waste.
16. onomatopoeia拟声词，象声词
rustle沙沙 gargle漱口
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17. Climax （层进）It is derived from the Greek word for \"ladder\" and implies the progression of thought at a uniform or almost uniform rate of significance or intensity, like the steps of a ladder ascending evenly. For example，
1）I came, I saw, I conquered. 2)He threatened to swear at people, beat people and murder people. 3)The audience smiled, chuckled, and finally howled. (微笑，窃窃而笑，捧腹大笑)
4)We are low—we’re low—we are very, very low, as low as low can be. (我们低贱—我们低贱—我们非常非常低贱，低贱得不能再低贱。) (Ernest Jones)
5）I am sorry, I am very sorry, I am so extremely sorry. 18. Anticlimax （突降法）contrary to climax, involves a sudden change or abrupt declension on the part of the speaker from something noble, serious, exciting, etc., to something foolish, unimportant or uninteresting. Anticlimax may be done intentionally for the sake of humor or ridicule.
1) I lost my bag, and with it, my wallet, my I.D. card, and my dirty socks.
2) “Who is he ?” “ Why, he has been soldier, ballad-singer, traveling tinker and is now a beggar.”
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19. symbolism 象征
the incessant struggle between kimono and miniskirt
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